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Molecular & Cellular Proteomics 2:463-473, 2003.
© 2003 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.
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From the Biological Engineering Division, Department of Biology, and ¶ Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 400 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02139
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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B pathway (IKK), and three core mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways (ERK, JNK1, MK2). These parallel high-throughput assays are stringently linear, redundantly specific, reproducible, and sensitive compared with classical low-throughput techniques. When applied to a model of sepsis-induced colon epithelial apoptosis, this approach identified a late phase of Akt activity as a critical mediator of cell survival that quantitatively contributed to the efficacy of insulin as an anti-apoptotic cue. Thus, sampling parallel nodes in the intracellular signaling network identified part of the molecular mechanism underlying the efficacy of insulin in the treatment of human sepsis.
Evolving proteomic approaches to network biology have largely focused on measuring abundances of many proteins at only a few time points or under a limited number of experimental conditions (2). Complementary information on functional protein characteristics, such as enzyme activity, has been lacking in these systematic analyses, in large part because there do not exist quantitatively robust, high-throughput techniques that simultaneously measure multiple protein activities in cells. Initially, this type of data collection on protein functional status should focus on frequent sampling of a limited number of key molecules that sit at critical nodes in different signaling pathways (Fig. 1A).
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-B kinase (IKK), c-jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1), and mitogen-activated protein kinase-associated protein kinase 2 (MK2)) in a sepsis/systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) model system for tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-
)-induced colon epithelial cell death.
We chose this experimental model because, clinically, sepsis is the most common cause of death in critically ill patients and is a prime example of acute, systemic disease mediated by molecular network dysfunction (4, 5). Despite the multifaceted etiology of sepsis, the colonic epithelium represents a common final effector organ and is a major site for programmed cell death following injury (6). Epithelial apoptosis is believed to cause gut barrier dysfunction (7), leading to leakage of cytokines and possibly bacteria into the systemic circulation, thereby exacerbating the inflammatory state. Thus, the bowel has been postulated to be the "motor" driving the septic state (8). TNF- levels are drastically elevated in a number of forms of human sepsis, and levels correlate with increased mortality (9). The five kinases whose activities we measured function downstream of TNF- as canonical hubs for signaling pathways that control cell survival, stress responses, and the onset of programmed cell death (Fig. 1A, gray nodes) (10–13). Quantitative sampling of the activity of these kinases in time with the high-throughput multiplex assays provided a window into the state of the signaling network in this model of cytokine-induced human disease.
Due to the complexity of the disease, treatments for sepsis have proven elusive, with certain monotherapies (e.g. TNF antagonists (14)) actually worsening patient survival. Intriguingly, intensive insulin therapy has recently been found to reduce morbidity in critical illness substantially (15), though the mechanism underlying this effect is unknown (4). A number of possibilities have been proposed, including tight regulation of glucose levels (16), antagonism of proinflammatory molecules (17), and reduction of circulating C-reactive protein levels (18).
At the molecular level, TNF- and insulin activate a number of common signaling pathways that are highly interconnected (Fig. 1A), and it is difficult to predict a priori how these conflicting cues are processed intracellularly to determine cell fate in physiologically relevant cell types. We hypothesized that quantitative, dynamic measurement of information flow through these critical signaling nodes might clarify how network information is processed and reveal new signal-response relationships involving insulin’s mechanism of action in sepsis.
We implemented an in vitro model of TNF-induced programmed cell death in a human colon epithelial cell line that survives TNF- treatment when costimulated with insulin. The network response to TNF- and insulin as combinatorial cues in this model system was then explored by performing over 400 independent kinase activity measurements with the high-throughput assays. A significant reduction in TNF-induced colon epithelial death was observed upon insulin treatment. This correlated with a profound change in the pattern of Akt kinase activity, with only minor perturbations observed in the activities of other kinases that were assayed. We were able to attribute at least half of the insulin-induced survival effect to the specific activation of the Akt pathway at late times. Importantly, we found that the addition of insulin 4 h after TNF- addition provided sufficient late-phase Akt activity to elicit the same survival effect as when insulin was added simultaneously with TNF-, suggesting a molecular mechanism for how insulin improves patient survival in sepsis even when administered hours after the initial insult. The assay format and approach that we report here provides a common platform that can now be used to systematically probe multiple signal transduction pathways at moderate sampling rates under diverse experimental conditions of broad scientific and medical interest.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES |
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TOPABSTRACTEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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(Roche) for an additional 24 h. After sensitization, cells were rinsed once with PBS and treated with 50 ng/ml TNF- (Peprotech, Rocky Hill, NJ) with or without 100 nM insulin (Sigma) for the indicated times. Cells were washed once with ice-cold PBS and lysed in 1% Triton X-100, 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 150 mM NaCl, 50 mM ß-glycerophosphate, 10 mM sodium pyrophosphate, 30 mM NaF, 1 mM benzamidine, 2 mM EGTA, 100 µM NaVO4, 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 10 µg/ml aprotinin, 10 µg/ml leupeptin, 1 µg/ml pepstatin, 1 µg/ml microcystin-LR. Whole cell lysates were incubated on ice for 15 min, then clarified by centrifugation at 16,000 x g for 15 min at 4 °C. Protein concentrations of clarified extracts were determined with a bicinchoninic acid assay (Pierce).
High-throughput Kinase Activity Assays—
The microtiter-based kinase activity assays were performed with the following antibodies: anti-ERK1/2 CT (Upstate Biotechnology, Lake Placid, NY), anti-Akt PH domain (Upstate Biotechnology), anti-JNK1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA), anti-IKK/ß (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) or anti-MK2 (Upstate Biotechnology). Protein A or G microtiter strips (Pierce) were coated overnight with 10 µg/ml anti-kinase antibody and washed three times with blocking buffer (1% bovine serum albumin (Sigma) in 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 150 mM NaCl, 0.05% Triton X-100). Cell lysates (50 µg for ERK, 500 µg for Akt, 200 µg for JNK1, 200 µg for MK2, 600 µg for IKK) were added for 3 h (ERK, Akt, JNK1, and MK2) or overnight (IKK), then washed two times with wash buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 150 mM NaCl) and two times with kinase wash buffer (20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 15 mM MgCl2, 5 mM ß-glycerophosphate, 1 mM EGTA, 0.2 mM Na3VO4, 0.2 mM DTT). The wells were resuspended in 20 µl kinase wash buffer and warmed to 37 °C. Then 20 µl kinase assay buffer (kinase wash buffer plus 0.4 µM protein kinase A inhibitor, 4 µM protein kinase C inhibitor, 4 µM calmidazolium, 0–25 µM cold ATP, 1–5 µCi [-32P]ATP) was added to the wells, followed by 20 µl of substrate (40 µg myelin basic protein for ERK, 10 µM Aktide (19) for Akt, 3 µg glutathione S-transferase (GST)-ATF2 (1–109) (20) for JNK1, 10 µM MK2tide2 for MK2, 10 µg GST-IB (1–62) (21) for IKK) to initiate the reaction. The kinase reactions were allowed to proceed for 15–120 min at 37 °C, then terminated by 60 µl 75 mM H3PO4 or 20 mM EDTA. Exact conditions for each kinase assay are detailed in Table I. For EDTA-terminated reactions, 40 µl of the terminated reaction was transferred to a phosphocellulose filter plate (Millipore, Bedford, MA) containing 100 µl 75 mM H3PO4 and mixed, whereas H3PO4-terminated reactions were added directly to the filter plates. The terminated reaction contents were vacuum-filtered and washed five times with 75 mM H3PO4 and three times with 70% EtOH. The filters were punched into vials and the radioactivity incorporated was measured by liquid scintillation (Cytoscint; ICN Pharmaceuticals, Costa Mesa, CA). The results from blank wells, containing only lysis buffer during the immunopurification step, were subtracted to remove nonspecific contributions, with the exception of Akt, where this was not necessary.
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/ß (Santa Cruz Biotechnology). The membranes were then probed with horseradish peroxidase conjugated anti-mouse or anti-rabbit secondary antibody (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) at 1:10,000 dilution and visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) on a FluorS (Bio-Rad) or Kodak Image Station (Perkin Elmer). Bands were selected and quantified according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Autoradiography—
Thirty microliters of the terminated kinase reactions were mixed with 10 µl 4x sample buffer and resolved on a 10% polyacrylamide glycine gel for protein substrates or a 16% polyacrylamide tricine gel for peptide substrates (22). The dye front was excised, and the gel exposed overnight to a multisensitive BaFBr:Eu2+ screen (Perkin Elmer). The screen was visualized using a Cyclone Storage Phosphor system (Perkin Elmer).
Cell Imaging—
HT-29 cells were seeded in Delta T glass culture dishes (Bioptechs). After 30 h, cells were pretreated with IFN- as described, then rinsed and treated with 50 ng/ml TNF- or 50 ng/ml TNF- + 100 nM insulin for 18 h. Then 6 µg/ml Hoechst 33342 (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) was added to the medium, and phase and fluorescence images were collected. Cells were then fixed with 100% MeOH and stored at -20 °C overnight. After primary staining with anti-cleaved caspase 3 (Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA) and secondary staining with Alexa 594-conjugated anti-rabbit IgG (Molecular Probes), fluorescence images were collected.
Apoptosis Assays—
HT-29 cells were seeded in 96-well plates and sensitized with IFN- as described. For inhibitor studies, 20 µM LY294002 was added to the medium 1 h before or 3 h after cytokine stimulation. During washout experiments, the medium was removed and the wells washed once with PBS. The medium was then replaced with medium conditioned by cells treated with the same cytokine concentrations without inhibitor. After 18 h, cells were rinsed with PBS and trypsinized. The supernatant and rinse were saved and combined with the trypsinized cells to ensure capture of both floating and adherent cells. The cells were washed with PBS, then fixed in 100% MeOH and stored at -20 °C. The fixed cells were stained with a fluorescein-labeled monoclonal antibody against caspase-cleaved cytokeratin (M30; Roche), plus anti-cleaved-caspase-3 (Asp 175; Cell Signaling) with Alexa 647-conjugated anti-rabbit secondary (Molecular Probes), according to the manufacturers’ instructions. Cells were washed once after staining, then analyzed by flow cytometry (FACScalibur; Becton-Dickinson, Mountain View, CA). Cells positive for cleaved cytokeratin, cleaved caspase-3, or both were scored as apoptotic. Three separate biological samples were analyzed for each treatment condition. Percent increased survival was calculated according to the following formula: [1 - (% apoptotic cells in the presence of insulin)/(% apoptotic cells in the absence of insulin under the same pretreatment conditions)] x 100%.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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-32P]ATP and a kinase-specific substrate to initiate an in vitro kinase reaction, and iv) termination of the in vitro reaction either by H3PO4 or EDTA and liquid transfer to a 96-well phosphocellulose (PC) filter plate to isolate phosphoproteins and remove free [-32P]ATP. We developed assays for ERK (3), Akt, JNK1, IKK, and MK2 activity in cell extracts after rigorous optimization and quantitative validation.
To develop the parallel immunopurification step, we experimentally screened multiple commercially available products and identified for each kinase a single, high-affinity antibody that retained enzymatic activity. Coating conditions for each anti-kinase antibody on Protein A/G microtiter plates were individually optimized, revealing that the antibodies maximally bound their intended targets when 50 µl of 10 µg/ml antibody was applied to each well (Fig. 2, A–D, left panels), consistent with our estimates of the number of antibody binding sites on the plate surface. Higher coating concentrations of polyclonal antibodies (anti-JNK1, anti-IKK/ß, and anti-MK2) reduced the solid-phase avidity for the kinase and caused a net decrease in purification efficiency (Fig. 2, B–D, left panels). At the optimized coating concentration (Fig. 2, A–D, left panels, arrows), the immunopurification was always linear in the amount of kinase purified over a substantial range of lysate concentrations (Fig. 3, A–D). This demonstrates that the antibody capture step linearly reflects kinase abundance in the lysate.
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To investigate the sensitivity, dynamic range, and linearity of these assays, HT-29 and HeLa cells were treated with known activators of each kinase, and the kinase activities (CPM on the PC filter) measured as a function of different dilutions of the activated lysates (Fig. 2, A–D, middle panels). The 32P incorporation was linear over at least an order of magnitude in activity, and the absolute sensitivities of the assays were always below 200 µg, with some assays capable of measuring activity from as little as 10–25 µg of total lysate. This result is comparable to, or better than, existing assays that usually require several hundred micrograms of lysate for analysis (23–25). The aggregate sensitivity of the format was more than sufficient to measure ERK, Akt, JNK1, MK2, and IKK activity simultaneously from a single 10-cm plate of HT-29 cells.
The signal-to-noise and reproducibility characteristics for each kinase assay were examined by selecting a single concentration in the middle of the dynamic range of each assay (Fig. 2, A–D, middle panels, arrows) and comparing the kinase activities between lysates from stimulated and unstimulated cells. For each agonist, this revealed a relative activation of each endogenous kinase that was comparable in magnitude to that reported in the literature, with intra-assay coefficients of variation always 
10%. Thus, the assays clearly reflected activation of the endogenous pathways, and the end point measures of activity were highly sensitive and reproducible.
In order for these assays to reflect information flow through the signaling network accurately, it was crucial to confirm that our end point CPM measurement linearly reflected the kinase activity in the lysate. Therefore, the kinetics of the in vitro reaction were examined in detail at a selecting fixed lysate concentration within the linear range (Fig. 2, A–D, middle panels, arrows). As shown in Fig. 5, A–D, each phosphorylation reaction displayed linear kinetics up to the time of termination, suggesting that neither the [-32P]ATP nor the substrate was significantly depleted over the course of the reaction. Thus, the linearity at every step in the assay procedure (kinase capture, in vitro reaction kinetics, and end point CPM measurement) strongly suggests that these assays are a linear reflection of endogenous kinase activity in vivo.
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Application to an In Vitro Model of Sepsis-induced Colon Epithelial Apoptosis—
HT-29 cells are a human colon carcinoma cell line that die in response to TNF-, following sensitization with interferon gamma (IFN-) (30). We confirmed that TNF-treated HT-29 cells exhibit many features of apoptosis, such as cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing, nuclear condensation, and caspase 3 activation (Fig. 6, left). Intriguingly, we found that TNF-induced cell death can be reduced by 
30% if HT-29 cells are costimulated with insulin (Fig. 6, right), in agreement with previous reports (31). Given the importance of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF- and IFN-, in sepsis (4) and the emerging role of insulin as a therapeutic for critically ill patients (15), we considered HT-29 cells as an appropriate model system for exploring the signaling network dynamics activated by TNF- and TNF- + insulin in relation to a relevant cell phenotype: colon epithelial cell death, as observed during the onset of sepsis (6).
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, in the presence or absence of 100 nM insulin cotreatment, and triplicate lysates were prepared at 13 time points over 24 h. Because much of the signaling induced by these cues occurs shortly after cytokine addition, time points were more densely sampled in the first 4 h (Fig. 7, A and B, inset). From these cell extracts, quantitative measurements of ERK, Akt, JNK1, MK2, and IKK kinase activity were performed using the high-throughput multiplex kinase activity assays (Fig. 7, A and B). To our knowledge, this set of time courses, consisting of over 400 independent activity measurements, represents the most comprehensive, rigorously quantitative study of functional signaling dynamics performed to date. To achieve this depth of quantitative, replicated network sampling by traditional techniques would have been extraordinarily laborious and technically impractical.
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signaling, a pairwise comparison was performed for each kinase under TNF- with and without insulin costimulation. As shown in Fig. 7C, the dynamics of activation of some pathways, such as the ERK pathway (Fig. 7C, green), were essentially superimposable. Thus insulin does not appear to influence activation of the ERK pathway by TNF- under these conditions. Other TNF-induced kinase activities were affected by insulin in a time-dependent manner. JNK1 activity, for example, was larger at intermediate times (8–16 h), while IKK activity was smaller at 16 h, and MK2 activity was larger at late times (16–24 h). Although potentially important, these transient signaling differences did not clearly reflect the insulin-induced survival phenotype observed at the cellular level (Fig. 6).
Late-phase Akt Activity as a Critical Pro-survival Signal—
In contrast to the subtle influences of insulin on ERK, JNK1, IKK, and MK2 signaling, it was readily apparent that insulin dramatically augmented Akt activity, inducing a rapid increase within 5 min and sustaining activation for 24 h, whereas with TNF- alone, the Akt response was much smaller in magnitude (Fig. 7C, red). In addition to these quantitative differences, we noted that the dynamic TNF-induced Akt response was also qualitatively different without insulin, in that the course of activation was clearly biphasic, with a brief initial peak, followed by a small (i.e. 2-fold), sustained increase in activity after 4 h. If these data had not been rigorously quantitative, or had the signaling network not been sampled frequently in time, this increase in activity would likely have been missed. By virtue of the high-throughput activity assays, however, it was clear that Akt activity after 4 h was significantly up-regulated in comparison to baseline activity (p < 0.05 for all times after 4 h, Student’s t test).
These findings suggested that a significant component of the insulin-induced anti-apoptotic effect was mediated by the high sustained Akt activity, and that this activity profile was derived from the superposition of an early, elevated phase of activity that was transient with a late, elevated phase of activity that was sustained (Fig. 8A). Conversely, in cells treated with TNF- alone, these two phases were reduced in intensity and separated in time. Because Akt is thought to provide strong pro-survival signals (10), we hypothesized that one or both of these temporal components of Akt activation were involved in controlling the phenotypic response of HT-29 cells to TNF- and insulin.
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When LY294002 was added 1 h before cytokine addition and tonically maintained to block Akt activity over the entire time course, a dramatic increase in TNF-induced cell death was observed (Fig. 8B, red). Surprisingly, if LY294002 was present only for the first 3 h of TNF- addition, thus permitting only the late phase of Akt activity, there was no increased cell death relative to treatments without inhibitor. In contrast, when LY294002 was first added at 3 h after cytokine addition to selectively abolish late-phase Akt activity, we observed an increase in cell death equivalent to that observed when the inhibitor was present for the entire 24 h. An identical pattern was observed in response to TNF- + insulin (Fig. 8B, green), whereas LY294002 had only a small effect on basal apoptosis (Fig. 8B, blue). These data suggest that late-phase Akt activation is necessary to restrain the percentage of cells undergoing programmed cell death in response to TNF- in the presence or absence of insulin.
The importance of late Akt activity in controlling TNF-induced cell death, in conjunction with the strong, sustained late Akt activation in the presence of insulin, led to the hypothesis that the insulin-induced increase in cell survival was due, in part, to this increase in late-phase Akt signaling. If true, then addition of insulin up to 4 h after the pro-death stimulus should elicit an equivalent reduction in the extent of TNF-induced apoptosis. Indeed, this was observed; the delayed addition of insulin 4 h following TNF- addition resulted in the same increase in HT-29 cell survival as observed when insulin was added simultaneously with TNF- (Fig. 8C). Moreover, pretreatment with LY294002 1 h before insulin addition significantly reduced the survival response, regardless whether insulin was added simultaneously or 4 h after TNF- treatment (Fig. 8C).
These experiments strongly implicate late-phase signaling, along a PI 3-K-dependent/Akt pathway, as a critical pro-survival mechanism of insulin in colon epithelia. Excessive apoptosis in the gut leads to disruption of the epithelial permeability barrier (7) that drives many of the complications of the septic state (8). Our results provide a partial molecular explanation why intensive insulin therapy, administered hours after the initial septic insult, is capable of reducing sepsis-induced apoptosis of gastrointestinal epithelia and improving the prognostic outcome in critically ill patients.
We stress that it was the ability to robustly sample the dynamics of multiple nodes in the signaling network with the high-throughput multiplex kinase assay format described in this paper that enabled the identification of Akt as an important signal for modulating cell response. Other insulin-induced, PI 3-K independent pathways must also attenuate the TNF-induced apoptotic phenotype in HT-29 cells, because inhibition of PI 3-K/Akt by LY294002 did not completely abrogate the rescue response of insulin (Fig. 8C). Thus, i) there may exist additional response-determining pathways that our measurements did not capture, or ii) the subtle, time-dependent quantitative differences we measured in the JNK1, IKK, and MK2 pathways (Fig. 7C) may modulate phenotypic response. We are currently investigating both these possibilities.
The current knowledge of intracellular signal transduction is staggeringly complex. To identify network-level properties that affect cell function, it will be necessary to mathematically model the dynamic, multivariate characteristics of signaling proteins within cells (34). For such models to be realized, quantitative experimental techniques that are both high-throughput and multiplex are needed. The kinase activity assay format presented here represents a first step in this direction. The 96-well, microtiter format is highly versatile, in that it is amenable to scale-up and automated liquid handling, yet tractable for individual scientists and more moderate studies. Importantly, these assays possess linearity, reproducibility, specificity, and sensitivity characteristics as good as, or better than, the corresponding low-throughput technique. We anticipate that these functional assays will complement existing proteomic approaches (2) and find broad applicability toward biological and clinical problems involving signal transduction and human disease.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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Published, MCP Papers in Press, June 26, 2003, DOI 10.1074/mcp.M300045-MCP200
1 The abbreviations used are: ERK, extracellular-regulated kinase; IKK, I-B kinase; JNK1, c-jun N-terminal kinase 1; MK2, mitogen-activated protein kinase-associated protein kinase 2; PC, phosphocellulose; PI 3-K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; SIRS, systemic inflammatory response syndrome; TNF-, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; DTT, dithiothreitol; IFN-, interferon gamma; GST, glutathione S-transferase; CPM, counts per minute. 
2 I. A. Manke and M. B. Yaffe, manuscript in preparation.
3 J. G. Albeck, unpublished observations.
* This work was supported by the Defense Advanced Research Planning Agency Bio-Info-Micro Program, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences Cell Migration Consortium (to D. A. L.), and National Institutes of Health Grant GM59281 (to M. B. Y.). Additional financial support was provided by the Whitaker Foundation (to K. A. J.). The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
|| To whom correspondence should be addressed: Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave. E18-580, Cambridge, MA 02139. Tel.: 617-452-2103, Fax: 617-452-4978; E-mail: myaffe{at}mit.edu
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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B activity.
Annu. Rev. Immunol.
18, 621
–663[CrossRef][Medline]
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12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2; Calbiochem), and IKK activity was quantified as described under "Experimental Procedures." D, Left panel, MK2 was immunopurified from 200 µg of HT-29 lysate on Protein G microtiter plates coated with 50 µl of anti-MK2 at various coating concentrations and analyzed as described in A. Middle panel, 10–400 µg of lysate from HT-29 cells treated with 500 mM NaCl for 30 min was measured with the high-throughput MK2 activity assay using 10 µM MK2tide as substrate, as described under "Experimental Procedures." The stimulated lysate (arrow) was compared with 200 µg untreated control lysate (solid bar). Right panel, HT-29 cells were pretreated with various concentrations of SB202190 (Calbiochem) for 1 h then stimulated with 500 mM NaCl for 30 min and lysed. MK2 activity was quantified as described under "Experimental Procedures." All kinase activities are reported as the mean ± S.E. of triplicate samples (error bars for the MK2 assay were smaller than the size of the marker). Western blots were repeated at least twice with similar results; representative images are shown. Arrows indicate fixed experimental conditions for the adjacent experiment.
), 50 ng/ml TNF-